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- "Brigandage"
and repression continued until 1870 (with a new peak
in 1868), and their overall data are appalling;
-
in fact, the armed resistance had also a "civil"
character: parliamentary opposition was organised,
the magistracy held protests since its glorious and
centuries-old traditions had been cancelled, civil
servants carried out a passive resistance and refused
to take over administrative tasks, the population
expressed its displeasure and did not go to vote when
elections were held or refused the conscription, many
people emigrated, underground press saw a great diffusion
and the best freelance journalists in the Kingdom
- among which Gacinto de’ Sivo - argued polemically
against the situation;
-
the cream of European legitimist aristocracy took
part in the resistance: Earl Henri de Cathelineau
(a descendant of the hero of Vendée), the Prussian
Baron Theodore Klitsche de La Grange, the Saxon Earl
Edwin of Kalckreuth (shot in 1862), the Belgian Marquis
Alfred Trazégnies de Namour (shot in 1861),
Earl Emile-Théodule de Christen, the Catalans
José Borges (called the "anti-Garibaldi")
and Rafael Tristany, etc.;
-
of course, the deepest motivations were religious
ones: the population hated liberals and "gentlemen"
because since the time of Napoleon they had oppressed
and held religion in contempt by profaning churches
and relics; the presence of friars and priests is
a constant in popular representations of the guerrilla,
and the flags used always portrayed religious subjects;
also the Jesuit magazine "La Civiltà Cattolica"
always expressed its liking for the rebellion.
The
Beginning of the Rebellion and its Repression
When on 6 September 1860 Francis left Naples, and
on 8 September he called for the armed resistance,
50,000 men responded.
Queen
Maria Sofia, Promoter of Resistance in Gaeta |
On
19 September at Roccaromana and on 21 September
at Caiazzo farmers rose up and went to help
the Bourbon troops against the Garibaldian troops.
On 23 September the first brigade of 4 battalions
- each with 6 companies - was formed with both
soldiers and farmers, under the lead of Colonel
Teodor Klitsche de Lagrange, who received his
orders by the minister of the police Calà
Ulloa: restore the lawful governments, confiscate
the coffers of the municipalities and send them
to Gaeta (where in the meanwhile Francis II
and Maria Sofia had taken refuge with all their
most loyal forces) and protect churches and
priests. The same orders were given also to
generals Scotti-Douglas and von Meckel, with
the aim of fostering a general uprising in Terra
di Lavoro.
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The
operation had a resounding success: in a few weeks,
all the northern provinces of the Kingdom rose up,
first against the Garibaldian troops, then against
the Savoy troops and the “Italian” army;
after that, in the subsequent months, and for years,
all the kingdom rose up, whereas the military strongholds
of Civitella del Tronto, Messina and Gaeta showed
an heroic resistance. The ruthless repression began
in October 1860. General Villamarina asked Farini
to proclaim martial law, whereas the day after Cialdini
arrived and by a proclamation began the executions.
On 23 October, Fanti issued a proclamation that gave
competence to special war tribunals for brigandage
crimes; on 2 November, the governor of Teramo and
Pinelli proclaimed martial law in those territories
and immediate execution for those who would be found
armed. As for Pinelli, in the territories of L’Aquila
he had already started to execute also those who were
just suspected to help brigands or who insulted by
words or actions the Savoy or their flag. General
Della Rocca ordered that in Sora and Avezzano territories
prisoners would immediately be executed because prisons
were already overcrowded. In Turin there was a great
and widespread concern and so in July 1861 Cialdini
was appointed as Lieutenant-governor and took both
military and civil powers. At the end of August, there
were already 40,000 soldiers in southern Italy; in
October there were 91 battalions, 37 of which in Naples;
by December 50,000 men had risen up.
The rebels would reach the figure of 120,000 men in
the subsequent years!
But on 9 October Ricasoli, who did not like Cialdini,
deposed him and gave his position to Lamarmora, who
continued his ruthless repression by enforcing a strict
martial law. The counterrevolution, however, was more
active than ever (Molfese mentions the names of tenths
and tenths of armed groups and leaders) and the repression
became more ruthless than ever. In Capitanata, Mazé
de la Roche did not find any problem in setting fire
to houses and barns and in arresting people just because
they were found out of a town. The terror exceeded
all boundaries. Hundreds of people were shot every
day. Molfese mentions tenths of clashes and slaughters
of brigands and populace. A striking picture appears
from all that: the guerrilla was widespread all over
southern Italy, with tenths of leaders, the populace
had risen up in tenths of territories and the rebels
were thousands and thousands from Abruzzo to Calabria,
every place was revolting. Even the Hungarian divisions
were used against the rebels. A description of every
event and place is useless here: the entire former-Kingdom
had rose up. |
